5-minute PACUS Sector GOES-18 (GOES-West) Shortwave Infrared images (above) displayed the pronounced thermal signature associated with an eruption of Kilauea on the Big Island of Hawai`i on 06 December 2025. According to the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, this Episode 38 of the ongoing Halema`uma`u eruption began at 1845 UTC — and there were 3 roughly equal sized 500 foot (150 meter) high lava fountains, with 2 from the north vents and 1 from the south vent. Such a triple fountain is an extremely rare event, and this is the first time during this current sequence of eruption episodes that it has been observed. Episode 38 abruptly ended at 0652 UTC on 07 December, after 12.1 hours of continuous lava fountaining.

As early as 1856 UTC, the thermal signature exhibited a Shortwave Infrared brightness temperature of 137.88ºC (below) — which is the saturation temperature of GOES-18 ABI Band 7 detectors.

GOES-18 Ash RGB images created using Geo2Grid (below) showed the rapid eastward transport of 2 long plumes of volcanic cloud that were composed primarily of SO₂ (pale shades of green), in addition to the slower south-southwest transport of volcanic clouds that were composed of both SO₂ and a mixture of ash and SO₂ (shades of yellow). A dense volcanic cloud also emerged from the summit of Kilauea beginning around 2001 UTC, composed of both ash and SO₂, which moved eastward.

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5-minute CONUS Sector GOES-19 (GOES-East) Nighttime Microphysics RGB + daytime True Color RGB images from the CSPP GeoSphere site (above) showed numerous power plant plumes (shades of red) embedded within a supercooled water droplet c  loud layer (shades of yellow) that covered much of Wisconsin on 02 December 2025.

The GOES-19 Cloud Top Phase derived product (below) confirmed that the cloud layer across the region was predominantly Supercooled (light green). The power plant plumes were classified as Uncertain (black).

An animation of GOES-19 Night Fog brightness temperature difference (BTD) + daytime Near-Infrared “Snow/Ice” (1.61 µm) images (below) also included plots of METAR surface reports — some of which showed light snow (denoted by the * symbol) in the the vicinity of the larger power plant plumes. These power plant plumes had the effect of eroding the supercooled water droplet cloud layer — via glaciation, initiated by the power plant emission of particles that acted as efficient ice nuclei, which then caused snow to fall from that portion of the cloud.

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One notable power plant plume in southern Wisconsin originated in west-central Dane County — and as this plume passed near/over the Madison airport (KMSN), the observer remarked that snow began at 1400 UTC and ended at 1451 UTC (above). The visibility at the 1453 UTC report time had improved to 8 statute miles — while the visibility at the Middleton airport, located just SW of KMSN, was only 4 statute miles at that time (Middleton is an AWOS site, which does not report precipitation type).

3 hours later, KMSN was reporting light snow with a visibility of 3 statute miles as the same power plant plume was passing near/over the airport (below) — while the visibility at Middleton was 2-1/2 statute miles (where it was also likely snowing). During the 1400-1900 UTC (0800-1300 CST) time period, intermittent reductions in visibility due to light snow were apparent in UW-AOS rooftop cameras facing north and northwest.

A closer view of the power plant plumes originating in Dane County is shown in a comparison of Suomi-NPP VIIRS True Color RGB and False Color RGB images valid at 1820 UTC, visualized using RealEarth (below). By that time, the leading edge of the Dane County plume had traveled northeastward over Columbia County; plumes from the Columbia Energy Center near Portage were also apparent.

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In northern Wisconsin, during the overnight hours a large power plant plume in Marathon County — likely the Weston Power Plant, located south of Wausau — was producing enough light snow to reduce the visibility to 1 mile at Wausau (KAUW), as seen in the GOES-19 0901 UTC Night Fog BTD image (below).

Since the Moon was in the Waxing Gibbous phase (at 93% of Full), it provided ample nighttime illumination to reveal that the power plant plume originating near Wausau was causing enough light snow to fall from the supercooled cloud layer that a hole (or at least a significant cloud thinning) had developed — as seen in VIIRS Day/Night Band imagery from NOAA-21 and Suomi-NPP (below).

During the subsequent daytime hours, the Marathon County power plant plume was drifting far enough northeastward to produce light snow that reduced the visibility to 3 statute miles at Antigo (KAIG) (below).

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As an aside, another interesting feature seen in the imagery was a packet of cloud-top waves associated with a bore that was moving inland (westward) across east-central Wisconsin during the morning hours (above). This bore had no influence on surface wind direction, indicating that the feature was not surface-based.

A plot of rawinsonde data from nearby Green Bay, Wisconsin at 1800 UTC (below) showed a pronounced temperature inversion from 948-900 hPa (1038-2058 ft) — within which the bore was likely being ducted as it propagated westward.

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When you hear about the lake effect, you almost always think about the Great Lakes, whose impacts on local weather and climate are well-known across the upper Midwest and into the northeast. It may, then, seem odd to consider a lake effect event in North Dakota. However, if conditions are right, smaller bodies of water can also create lake effect snow.

Lake Sakakawea is a reservoir that was formed in the 1950s when the two-mile long Garrison Dam was built across the Missouri River for flood control and hydroelectric purposes. While it’s the country’s third largest reservoir by volume, its long, narrow shape lends it the form of a very wide river more than a traditional lake.

With a polar air mass plunging southward from Canada, surface temperatures in central North Dakota were very cold on the afternoon of 1 December 2025. Even though it was daytime on the first day of December, surface temperatures were in the single digits and numerous stations had the potential to set new records for lowest daily maximum temperature. This was a sharp contrast to a little over a week earlier; on the 23rd of November, the high temperature at Garrison was 57 F.

Therefore, while the land surface was very cold, the lake was still relatively warm as its large thermal mass inhibited its heat loss. This made for a perfect set up for a lake effect event as the following visible animation from GOES-19 shows. Lake Sakakawea is the dark snake-like form in the middle of the image, and clouds can be streaming to the southeast from the southern portion of the lake. Note that the winds in the region are largely westerly, ensuring enough fetch along the lake to produce the effect.

Recent snows over the region had previously blanketed the area in white, meaning there was very little visible contrast between the clouds and the snow. Since these clouds are also very shallow, they have very little thermal contrast with the surrounding land, and thus the clouds are very difficult to discern using single channel infrared imagery as well. However, certain RGB products are well-suited to discriminating between snow and cloud, as can be seen in this view of the Day Snow-Fog product. Here, the lavender of the low clouds pops against the red of the snow-covered land.

It’s important to note that, as its name suggests, this product can only be used during the day. This is because of its dependence on multiple shortwave channels. At night, the 0.87 and 1.61 micron channels have no reflectance, and the interpretation of the 3.9 micron channel changes from reflectance to emission. These animations were recorded late in the day and wold soon become unreliable for further interpretation. A better product to use after sunset is the Night Microphysics RGB seen below. In this case the land has cooled even further with sunset; the temperature at Garrison on the northeastern edge of the lake dropped to 1 F at the time of this animation. This served to deepen the lake/land temperature gradient and further enhance the lake-induced dynamics.

Throughout this blog post, this has been called a lake effect snow event. However, there is no radar evidence that any precipitation formed from this. This animation from the Bismarck NEXRAD radar covers the area were we’d expect to see snow, but there’s nothing there beyond the expected ground clutter.

However, observers are reporting snow downwind of the lake. That’s visible in the station plots depicted in the GOES-19 animations at the start of this blog post. The asterisk in the station plot for Hazel, ND, indicates that snow was being observed at the same time that one of these lake-enhanced clouds was directly overhead.

So why are weather observers reporting snow when the radar says that it is clear? The answer is simple: lake effect snow events are shallow, and these highly localized lake effect events are even shallower. The radar beam gets higher above the ground the further away you get from the radar because of the tilt of the radar beam and the curvature of the earth. It’s approximately 60 miles from the NEXRAD in Bismarck to the shores of Lake Sakakawea, which means the beam is roughly 4500 feet above the ground at that distance. These shallow clouds easily slip beneath the lowest radar beam and produce snow that is undetected by the radar.

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On 28 November 2025, large regions of standing waves were present throughout the eastern seaboard. When air flows across mountainous regions it gets forced upward by orographic lift. The air cools as it rises due to adiabatic expansion. If the environment is largely stable, the upward motion is inhibited as the ascending air parcels find themselves too warm for the environment and so the air starts to sink. As it sinks, it warms due to adiabatic compression and eventually starts rising. This process can repeat itself many times as the air races hundreds of kilometers downstream of the initial range. While most commonly associated with the Rocky Mountains, they can occur over other, shorter landforms like the Appalachians. If the air is sufficiently moist, this can manifest itself as a series of parallel cloud bands, as can be seen in the GOES-19 True Color view. Note the ridged clouds that are particularly noticeable in Pennsylvania and Virginia. At the tops of these waves, when the air is at its coldest, condensation occurs. At the bottom, the cloud droplets evaporate as the air is warmed, leading to clear skies in between the ridges.

However, what if there’s not enough moisture for condensation to happen? Can these waves still be seen? If you’re looking using a water vapor channel, then the answer is yes. Look at the following animation of the 7.34 micron (low level water vapor) band from GOES-19. Note now in eastern Virginia and North Carolina, even though skies are clear the same wave pattern is visible. There’s even a particularly interesting feature in central Virginia where eastward-moving flow is creating its own waves that are intersecting with the westward flow over the Appalachian Mountains which is creating wave interference.

These events matter because these mountain waves are a significant cause of clear air turbulence (CAT). Turbulence associated with convection is easier for aircraft pilots and flight planners to identify and avoid since it is found in the vicinity of deep, moist convection. CAT, on the other hand, is not visible to the naked eye at standard visible wavelengths, but water vapor imagery can help pilots avoid these situations.

It’s important to note that the Channel 10 (7.34 micron) channel shown above is largely sensitive to low level water vapor. The waves depicted here are unlikely to disturb aviation too much as they are occurring at a level where most planes are just passing through on their way up to cruising altitudes or down to airports. However, these waves are still visible on the upper level water vapor channel, Channel 6 (6.19 microns).

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